Publications

Objectives. To test whether childhood maltreatment was a predictor of (1) having low educational qualifications and (2) not being in education, employment, or training among young adults in the United Kingdom today. Methods. Participants were from the Environmental Risk (E-Risk) Longitudinal Twin Study, a nationally representative UK cohort of 2232 twins born in 1994 to 1995. Mothers reported on child maltreatment when participants were aged 5, 7, 10, and 12 years. Participants were interviewed about their vocational status at age 18 years. Results. The unadjusted odds of having low educational qualifications or of not being in education, employment, or training at age 18 years were more than 2 times greater for young people with a childhood history of maltreatment versus those without. These associations were reduced after adjustments for individual and family characteristics. Youths who reported having a supportive adult in their lives had better education outcomes than did youths who had less support. Conclusions. Closer collaboration between the child welfare and education systems is warranted to improve vocational outcomes for maltreated youths. (Am J Y oung people who are currently tran-sitioning to adulthood face a challenging labor market and path to financial independence. 1 In the United States, unemployment rates have risen since 2000 for adolescents and young adults. 1,2 European youths face similar challenges. 3 The transition to adulthood is a critical point at which to alter trajectories for youths who are unemployed and have few, if any, educational qualifications. Predicting which young people are at highest risk for not being in education, employment, or training (NEET) is crucial to accurately target preventive services. A childhood history of maltreatment (e.g., abuse or neglect) is 1 such predictor of educational and employment outcomes. 4 Relatively high rates of school dropout and unemployment among young people with histories of maltreatment could reflect a causal process by which abuse and neglect result in cognitive impairments, poor mental health, or physical health problems that impinge on academic achievement and employment prospects. For example, youths who are exposed to abuse and neglect are at risk for emotional, behavioral, and academic problems that are predictive of school dropout and unemployment. 5,6 A second possibility is that the association between childhood maltreatment and adult education and employment outcomes is noncausal. For example, childhood maltreatment co-occurs with other robust risk factors for poor socioeconomic outcomes, namely family-and neighborhood-level poverty. 7 A number of studies have shown that the associations between maltreatment and poor education and employment outcomes become nonsignificant once adjustments are made for individual-and family-level risk factors such as IQ or family socioeconomic background. 8-10 By contrast, other studies have identified unique effects of childhood maltreatment on adult socioeconomic outcomes, even after accounting for co-occurring risk factors. 11 Finally, individuals with court-substantiated records of abuse and neglect who were followed prospectively into middle-adulthood had fewer educational qualifications and lower earnings, were only half as likely to be in a skilled job or to be employed, and were less likely to have assets such as stocks or a vehicle compared with demographically matched controls. 12 The current study is well suited to distinguish between social selection and social causation hypotheses about the relationship between childhood maltreatment and education and employment outcomes during the transition to adulthood. A social causation account posits that maltreatment negatively

Objective Childhood conduct problems are associated with poor functioning in early adulthood. We tested a series of hypotheses to understand the mechanisms underlying this association. Method We used data from the Environmental Risk (E-Risk) Longitudinal Twin Study, a birth cohort of 2,232 twins born in England and Wales in 1994 and 1995, followed up to age 18 years with 93% retention. Severe conduct problems in childhood were assessed at ages 5, 7, and 10 years using parent and teacher reports. Poor functioning at age 18 years, including cautions and convictions, daily cigarette smoking, heavy drinking, and psychosocial difficulties, was measured through interviews with participants and official crime record searches. Results Participants 18 years old with versus without a childhood history of severe conduct problems had greater rates of each poor functional outcome, and they were more likely to experience multiple poor outcomes. This association was partly accounted for by concurrent psychopathology in early adulthood, as well as by early familial risk factors, both genetic and environmental. Childhood conduct problems, however, continued to predict poor outcomes at age 18 years after accounting for these explanations. Conclusion Children with severe conduct problems display poor functioning at age 18 years because of concurrent problems in early adulthood and familial risk factors originating in childhood. However, conduct problems also exert a lasting effect on young people s lives independent of these factors, pointing to early conduct problems as a target for early interventions aimed at preventing poor functional outcomes.

Adolescent suicide rates exhibit stark geographic disparities, with rates highest in rural areas. The causes of this disparity remain unclear. We investigated whether adolescent nonfatal suicidal ideation and attempt—leading risk factors for suicide—demonstrate the same rural/urban disparity. Using adolescent data from the 2011–2014 waves of the population-representative California Health Interview Survey (CHIS; N = 4,616), we estimated associations between residence in a rural area and suicidal ideation and suicide attempt, as well as access to psychological care. Survey-weighted logistic regression models controlled for individual- and family-level covariates. Results showed that rural adolescents were, compared to urban adolescents, substantially less likely to report recent suicidal ideation (OR = 0.25, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.10, 0.61) and suicide attempt (OR = 0.17, 95% CI = 0.05, 0.66). Suicidal youths in rural and urban areas were equally likely, however, to report receiving psychological care. In this study, rural adolescents in California reported lower rates of nonfatal suicidal behavior compared to urban peers. This pattern contrasts with rates of adolescent suicide fatality, which are higher in rural areas. Results suggest that reducing geographic disparities in youth suicide may require multifaceted public health approaches, in addition to better identification and treatment for high-risk adolescents.

Prior research examining links between neighborhood violence and mental health has not been able to establish whether it is perceived levels of neighborhood violence, or actual levels of violent crime, that matter most for adolescents psychological well-being. In this study, we ascertained both perceived neighborhood safety and objectively-measured neighborhood-level violent crime (using a novel geospatial index of police-reported crime incidents) for 4464 adolescent respondents from the California Health Interview Survey (CHIS 2011–2014). We used propensity score-matched regression models to examine associations between these measures and CHIS adolescents symptoms of psychological distress. We found that adolescents who perceived their neighborhood to be unsafe were two times more likely than those who perceived their neighborhood to be safe to report serious psychological distress (OR = 2.4, 95 %CI = 1.20, 4.96). Adolescents who lived in areas objectively characterized by high levels of violent crime, however, were no more likely than their peers in safer areas to be distressed (OR = 1.41; 95 % CI = 0.60, 3.32). Our results suggest that, at the population level, adolescents perceptions of neighborhood violence, rather than objective levels of neighborhood crime, are most salient for their mental health.

The severity, sudden onset, and multipronged na- ture of the Great Recession (2007–2009) provided a unique opportunity to examine the health impacts of macroeconomic downturn. We comprehensively review empirical literature examining the relationship between the Recession and mental and physical health outcomes in developed nations. Overall, studies reported detrimental impacts of the Recession on health, particularly mental health. Macro- and individual- level employment- and housing-related sequelae of the Recession were associated with declining fertility and self- rated health, and increasing morbidity, psychological distress, and suicide, although traffic fatalities and population-level alcohol consumption declined. Health impacts were stronger among men and racial/ethnic minorities. Importantly, strong social safety nets in some European countries appear to have buffered those populations from negative health effects. This literature, however, still faces multiple methodological chal- lenges, and more time may be needed to observe the Recession s full health impact.We conclude with suggestions for future work in this field.

Background: Labour market disengagement among youths has lasting negative economic and social consequences, yet is poorly understood. We compared four types of work-related self-perceptions, as well as vulnerability to mental health and substance abuse problems, among youths not in education, employment or training (NEET) and among their peers. Methods: Participants were from the Environmental Risk (E-Risk) longitudinal study, a nationally representative UK cohort of 2,232 twins born in 1994–1995. We measured commitment to work, job-search effort, professional/technical skills, ‘soft skills (e.g. teamwork, decision-making, communication), optimism about getting ahead, and mental health and substance use disorders at age 18. We also examined childhood mental health. Results: At age 18, 11.6% of participants were NEET. NEET participants reported themselves as committed to work and searching for jobs with greater diligence than their non-NEET peers. However, they reported fewer ‘soft skills (B = ?0.98, p .001) and felt less optimistic about their likelihood of getting ahead in life (B = ?2.41, p .001). NEET youths also had higher rates of concurrent mental health and substance abuse problems, but these did not explain the relationship with work-related self-perceptions. Nearly 60% of NEET (vs. 35% of non-NEET) youths had already experienced ≥1 mental health problem in childhood/adolescence. Associations of NEET status with concurrent mental health problems were independent of pre-existing mental health vulnerability. Conclusions: Our findings indicate that while NEET is clearly an economic and mental health issue, it does not appear to be a motivation issue. Alongside skills, work-related self-perceptions and mental health problems may be targets for intervention and service provision among this high-risk population. Keywords:

STUDY OBJECTIVES: People with insomnia complain of cognitive deficits in daily life. Results from empirical studies examining associations between insomnia and cognitive impairment, however, are mixed. Research is needed that compares treatment-seeking and community-based insomnia study samples, measures subjective as well as objective cognitive functioning, and considers participants pre-insomnia cognitive function.\n\nDESIGN AND PARTICIPANTS: We used data from the Dunedin Study, a representative birth cohort of 1,037 individuals, to examine whether insomnia in early midlife was associated with subjective and objective cognitive functioning. We also tested whether individuals with insomnia who reported seeking treatment for their sleep problems (treatment-seekers) showed greater impairment than other individuals with insomnia (non-treatment-seekers). The role of key confounders, including childhood cognitive ability and comorbid health conditions, was evaluated.\n\nMEASUREMENTS: Insomnia was diagnosed at age 38 according to DSM-IV criteria. Objective neuropsychological assessments at age 38 included the WAIS-IV IQ test, the Wechsler Memory Scale, and the Trail-Making Test. Childhood cognitive functioning was assessed using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R).\n\nRESULTS: A total of 949 cohort members were assessed for insomnia symptoms and other study measures at age 38. Although cohort members with insomnia (n = 186, 19.6%) had greater subjective cognitive impairment than their peers at age 38, they did not exhibit greater objective impairment on formal testing. Treatment-seekers, however, exhibited significant objective impairment compared to non-treatment-seekers. Controlling for comorbidity, daytime impairment, and medications slightly decreased this association. Childhood cognitive deficits antedated the adult cognitive deficits of treatment-seekers.\n\nCONCLUSIONS: Links between insomnia and cognitive impairment may be strongest among individuals who seek clinical treatment. Clinicians should take into account the presence of complex health problems and lower premorbid cognitive function when planning treatment for insomnia patients.

There is evidence that persistent psychiatric disorders lead to age-related disease and premature mortality. Telomere length has emerged as a promising biomarker in studies that test the hypothesis that internalizing psychiatric disorders are associated with accumulating cellular damage. We tested the association between the persistence of internalizing disorders (depression, generalized anxiety disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder) and leukocyte telomere length (LTL) in the prospective longitudinal Dunedin Study (n=1037). Analyses showed that the persistence of internalizing disorders across repeated assessments from ages 11 to 38 years predicted shorter LTL at age 38 years in a dose-response manner, specifically in men ([beta]=-0.137, 95% confidence interval (CI): -0.232, -0.042, P=0.005). This association was not accounted for by alternative explanatory factors, including childhood maltreatment, tobacco smoking, substance dependence, psychiatric medication use, poor physical health or low socioeconomic status. Additional analyses using DNA from blood collected at two time points (ages 26 and 38 years) showed that LTL erosion was accelerated among men who were diagnosed with internalizing disorder in the interim ([beta]=-0.111, 95% CI: -0.184, -0.037, P=0.003). No significant associations were found among women in any analysis, highlighting potential sex differences in internalizing-related telomere biology. These findings point to a potential mechanism linking internalizing disorders to accelerated biological aging in the first half of the life course, particularly in men. Because internalizing disorders are treatable, the findings suggest the hypothesis that treating psychiatric disorders in the first half of the life course may reduce the population burden of age-related disease and extend health expectancy.